sunspots
Studies of the spectra of sunspots show evidence of the Zeeman effect, indicating the presence of a large magnetic field. In addition, measurements of the Doppler effect in the spectral lines show that there is a vortex motion in sunspots similar to that of a tornado on earth. The lower temperature of the gases constituting a sunspot results from the lower pressure due to the strong magnetic field.
Sunspots appear usually only between latitudes from 5° to 35° north and south of the sun's equator. They are not permanent since the sun's surface is gaseous. Because the sun rotates on its axis, a sunspot cannot be observed continuously for more than about two weeks.
An 11-year cycle from one period of maximum sunspot activity to the next is usually observed. However, a period during which most sunspots have one magnetic polarity is followed by another period during which most have the opposite magnetic polarity; thus, the cycle actually covers 22 years. During each 11-year period sunspots appear first at higher latitudes and later at latitudes closer to the solar equator as the period progresses. Periods in which an increase in sunspots is observed are called active periods.
A number of phenomena are associated with sunspots. Sunspot activity can produce solar flares and coronal mass ejections (eruptions of charged particles into space), which can cause various disturbances on earth—these include geomagnetic storms which manifest themselves as auroras, interference with radio reception and electric power grids, and disturbances of the magnetic compass (see also chromosphere). A storm in 1989 caused a blackout in Quebec prov., Canada, and a more extreme storm in 1859 affected the telegraph system, shocking operators. Evidence for even more intense geomagnetic storms caused by more powerful coronal mass ejections has been found by measuring radioactive isotopes contained in tree rings and ice cores. The peak flare rate, however, occurs several years after sunspot activity reaches its maximum, and the strongest flares typically occur as the cycle is nearing its minimum.
The Chinese recorded dark features on the sun seen with the naked eye in 28
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